UPPER SANDUSKY MISSION

Early Missions to Upper Sandusky

The longest lasting mission to the Wyandots at Upper Sandusky operated from 1816 to 1834. It was a Methodist mission established by the Ohio Conference. The Wyandots, however, had encountered other denominations of Christianity prior to the establishment of this mission. For over two centuries prior to the Methodist's mission, Wyandots had contact with French Catholics who were trappers and traders in the region. They never had a permanent Catholic mission established at Upper Sandusky, although Catholics did influence Wyandot views of Christianity and customs. Some Wyandot had adapted Catholic customs such as baby baptism, confession, and the use of a rosary when praying. However, the influence of Catholicism in Wyandot groups was not widespread. The Wyandot also had contact with Quaker missionaries, but they were also unable to establish a permanent mission.[i]

The first official mission at Upper Sandusky was a Presbyterian mission founded by Reverend Joseph Badger of the Connecticut Missionary Society in the early 1800s. After four years of discussion, in 1805, the Wyandot leaders decided to accept a permanent mission under the stipulation that Badger and the other missionaries stay only on the land they chose for them on the Western side of the river at Lower Sandusky and that the missionaries did not "bring any other white people but such as needed to assist in the mission." Rev. Badger's mission experienced some success but also faced numerous setbacks. He lacked full-time interpreters and did not speak or understand Wyandot language himself. He was also wrongly accused by local whisky traders of being an adulterer and misappropriating mission funds because the whisky traders did not like that he was preaching against alcohol use. The Wyandot dismissed these claims.[ii]

Eventually Rev. Badger convinced William Walker, Sr. to be the official interpreter in 1808. Walker, his wife, and his children were all fluent in the Wyandot language and greatly aided the mission. The Walker children especially helped the Wyandot children learn English since they knew both languages well and could teach their peers in school. In 1809, Badger's school had fifteen children attending. They were said to have been making great progress learning the English language. Badger departed the mission permanently in 1810 and continued his missionary work throughout the State of Ohio. Temporary missionaries continued the mission after Rev. Badger's departure. The mission had relative success until the War of 1812, which forced the mission's permanent closure. After the War of 1812, the Wyandots returned to Upper Sandusky.[iii]

History of the Methodist Mission

"I do not pretend to offer any opinion here, on the practicability of civilizing the Indians under the present arrangement of the government:- But, having spent a considerable portion of my life, in managing this description of people, I am free to declare, that the prospect of success here is greater than I have ever before witnessed- that the mission is ably and faithfully conducted, and has the strongest claims upon the countenance and support of the Methodist Church, as well as the Christian public at large." [iv]-John Johnston 

In 1816 a man named John Stewart arrived at Upper Sandusky intent on spreading Methodism to the Wyandots. Stewart was a free black man from Virginia, the son of free black parents. According to memoirs published after his death, Stewart had a troubled youth. He was disabled early in his life, his parents left him and moved to Tennessee. He later attempted to locate them and got robbed in Marietta. He became an alcoholic and contemplated committing suicide in the Ohio River due to the disgrace he felt from being in poverty. Soon after he joined the United Methodist Episcopal church in Marietta, Ohio, and learned a blue dyeing trade. In 1814, he became very ill and promised God that if he lived he would go into service preaching the word of God. He was said to have heard voices in the wind calling to him to preach and save sinners and started traveling northwest and learned of the Delaware and Wyandot He was known for his melodious singing voice. Upon arriving at Upper Sandusky, he met William Walker, Sr. Walker's first impression of Stewart was that he was a runaway slave, which Stewart cleared up. After Stewart explained his conversion story, Walker introduced him to John Pointer, a black man fluent in Wyandot. He was captured as a young boy by the Wyandots. Stewart convinced Pointer to aid him as his interpreter although Pointer was not enthusiastic about Stewart's preaching. Stewart's most persuasive approach to preaching to the Wyandots was his melodious singing.[v] 

Wyandot leaders at first did not appreciate Stewart's objections to traditional Wyandot culture and customs which they held sacred. They welcomed economic advantages and links to the world outside of their reservations but were less swayed by religious teachings. Initially, chiefs such as Monocue and John Hicks believed that the Bible was made for the white man and that it was never intended to be for indigenous peoples.[vi]

There was also confusion among Wyandots who had previously been told the Catholic Bible was correct. They believed that Stewart was leading them astray until William Walker, Sr. insisted Stewart's book was correct and suitable. One of the earliest supporters of the mission and Methodism was Between the Logs who spoke at nearly all Methodist meetings later said to have convinced Monocue and Hicks to adapt Methodist practices. Stewart had limited resources as he was not officially ordained by the Methodist church until 1819.[vii]

Stewart faced racial backlash throughout his time at the mission. Bloody Eyes, the brother of Between-the-Logs, was staunchly against Christianity and also believed black people were "created by the Evil Spirit." Whisky traders also criticized Stewart's race and his ability to preach, in part because Stewart preached intemperance, which was bad for their sales. The non-Christian Wyandot and neighboring white settlers often criticized Stewart on the basis of race and questioned his authority. However, many Christian Wyandots and those open to religious preaching accepted Stewart and greatly appreciated his efforts. Stewart was never deterred by the hatred and continued pursuing his calling. [viii]

At an 1819 meeting of the Ohio Conference, Methodists appointed James B. Finley as the first superintendent of the Upper Sandusky mission. The Ohio Conference created the rules and regulations for the mission, paid all expenses, raised funds, and procured goods for the mission. As a young man, Reverend James B. Finley converted to Methodism at a revival meeting. He was a Methodist circuit rider before his appointment to the mission. The Ohio Conference also appointed James Montgomery as the first missionary to the Wyandot mission at Upper Sandusky and officially employed John Stewart. Stewart, although a staunch Methodist, was not ordained by the church at the time and he was also struggling with tuberculosis. Two preachers on the Mad River Circuit, Rev. Russel Bigelow and Rev. Robert W. Finley were also appointed by the conference as a committee to "aid the mission and provide for the missionaries."[ix]

Reverend James B. Finley was well-liked by both the Wyandots and visitors to the mission. Judge Leib visited the mission in 1827 and spoke highly of Finley and the mission stating, "All was harmony, order, and regularity, under the superintending care of the Rev. Mr. Finley. Too much praise cannot be bestowed on this gentleman. His great sense, his unaffected zeal in the reformation of the Indian, his gracious manner, and conciliating disposition, fit him, in a particular manner, for the accomplishment of his purpose."[x]

The mission was generally self-sufficient and the farm produced most of their food for the year. Any additional funds they needed were donated by various parties. James B. Finley in an 1823 report noted that they received $1672.21 in total donations. $1000 came from the New York Missionary Society, the rest came from private donors in numerous states including, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, and Ohio. These funds were used to purchase necessities and farming tools, and to pay the missionaries and teachers.[xi]

There were 500-600 Wyandots at Upper Sandusky for the duration of the mission. Nearly half became Methodists, although the extent of their adherence and spirituality cannot be easily measured by the numbers alone. Many only adapted certain customs to suit their personal beliefs and spirituality and did not wholly embrace Methodism. The Wyandot owned nearly 148,000 acres on both sides of Sandusky River and another five-mile square reserve. The mission operated on roughly 200 acres of land and "Everyone lived at the mission house, which consisted of four large rooms, a kitchen, a mission family room, a girls bedroom, and a boys bedroom." [xii]

Mission Farm

"A stranger would believe he was passing through a white population, if the inhabitants were not seen; for besides the neatness of their houses with chimnies and glazed windows, you see horses, cows, sheep, and hogs grazing every where, and wagons, harness ploughs, and other implements of husbandry, in their proper places. In short, they are the only Indians within the circle of my visits whom I consider is entirely reclaimed, and whom I should consider it a cruelty to attempt to remove. They ought to be cherished and preserved as the model of a colony, should any be planted, and nurtured in remote places from our frontier settlements."[xiii] -Judge Lieb

The mission family and the school children all resided at the mission house. Rev. Finley noted in 1824 that there were sixty-four total members in the family, "Three laboring men, four girls- brother Hooper and his wife, myself and wife and 53 children." The two laborers worked under the direction of missionary James Gilruth. In 1824 the farm produced between two and three thousand bushels of corn. As of 1826, the mission had 200 acres fenced in, including 100 acres of pasture land. They had roughly 43 acres of corn, 15 of wheat, 5 of oats, 2 of potatoes, 16 of meadow, and 10 of orchard land. The rest was barnyard farmland ran. They also grew a variety of vegetables in small gardens. During the summer, the schoolboys. Schoolboys worked morning and evenings at the farm with no loss in their schooling. Many Wyandot families had their own individual farms of several acres each enclosed and cultivated that were independently operated. Farming was successful during the entirety of the mission with only a few instances of further provisions needed, such as a drought during the summer of 1831, which only moderately set them back. [xiv]

The mission taught the Wyandot how to build hewed houses with brick or stone chimneys, how to fence in their property, and farm their own land. The mission also lent plows to whoever wished to borrow them to cultivate their own fields. According to Judge Lieb, many Wyandot families built dwellings, "in the modern country style, with neat and well-furnished apartments, and furnished with chairs, tables, bedsteads, and beds, equal, at least, in all respects to the generality of whites around them." Much of the Native accomplishments were measured by how they compared to the standards of typical white society. The Zion Herald reported the changes they witnessed in Wyandot lifestyles in an 1823 article stating, "Some of their homes were made of small poles, and covered with bark; others of bark altogether. Their farms contained from about two acres to less than half an acre. The women did nearly all the work that was done. They had as many as two ploughs in the nation, but these were seldom used. In a word they were really in a savage state... But now they are building hewed log houses, with brick chimneys, cultivating their lands, and successfully adopting the various agricultural arts." As was common with other missions, the mission at Upper Sandusky encouraged an alteration in gender roles where women did housework and men did farm work, which was not the traditional lifestyle of the Wyandot. The Wyandot embraced these new lifestyles as a survival tool. Hunting was no longer a viable food source due to the influx of settlement in Ohio. Farming allowed them to integrate into the Ohio economy and sustain their food supplies year-round.[xv]

Judge Lieb was hired by the Department of War to assess the progress at the Upper Sandusky mission. He noted during his visit in 1827 that a majority of the Wyandot people, "dress like their white neighbors, and seem as contented and happy as any other portion of people I ever saw." His also provided a positive review of the size and potential of the crops and stated that the farm is "well supplied with horses, oxen, cows, swine, and all the necessary farming utensils." He documented buildings additional to the mission house including a meeting house 40x30 feet that was "handsomely and neatly furnished inside." The Wyandot also built a store "furnished with every species of goods suited to their [the Wyandot's] wants and purchased with their annuities." The store was said to sell and purchase at fair prices. The profits of the store collectively benefited the entire community.[xvi]

Mission School

"We further inform you that lately our council have resolved to admit a missionary school, to be established amongst us, at Upper Sandusky; and have selected a section of land for that purpose, at a place called Fort Meigs, where there is spring water and other conveniences; and all other necessary privileges that may be required for the furtherance of said school, shall be freely contributed, as far as our soil affords; Provided, the same does not intrude on any former improvements made by our own people, which are not to be intruded upon, Moreover, we will endeavor to supply the school with scholars of our own nation sufficient to keep it in action; and we will admit white children of our white friends who live among us." [xvii] - Wyandot chiefs

John Stewart, although intent on educating, did not have the time or resources to establish a school. The Wyandots were interested in educating their children in a school and requested that the Methodist church establish on at Upper Sandusky. The school was approved and opened in 1821 with 24 students enrolled during the first year. Throughout its operation the number of students greatly varied. On average the school had 40-50 students regularly attending each year, however, some years they had as few as 30 and as many as 70. The school was smaller than usual in 1832 due to the spread of whooping cough during the summer. The age of the students generally ranged from three to fifteen years old, while some students were as old as twenty.[xviii]

Finley reported that many Wyandot families were showing interest in having their children attend, so much so that Finley lacked the space to accommodate all that were interested. He stated, "They are the best natured, more easily governed, and more friendly, than any children I have ever seen in so rude a condition; and our number could be greatly increased, if our means would justify it." He placed a dozen students under Stewart's care and taught the rest himself. Charles Elliot took over as the teacher from 1822 to 1823. William Walker, Jr. took over as the boy's teacher in 1824. Boys and girls were taught in separate classrooms. The girls were taught by a young white female teacher whose name was not recorded. Both boys and girls at the school learned reading, spelling, writing, grammar, and arithmetic. They were also taught to read the Bible. As was common for all missions, girls were taught to "spin, sew, knit, weave, cook, and do all sorts of housework necessary for comfortable living." Boys were taught farming and agricultural techniques. They chopped wood, husked corn, and cared for livestock. They also had the option to receive religious training, or learn a trade. Every morning all the students, boys and girls, met to pray. The boys slept in the school-house, the girls slept in the mission house. Four girls were employed to help with cooking and housework. According to James Gilruth, the mission family, hired hands, and children all ate at one table. [xix]

It was a common practice for the students to be assigned English first names when they entered school. Names are an important piece of ones identity and the mission sought to change the childrens identities. Charles Elliot wrote, "when they came to school, they were without English names, and their native names sounded so strange and harsh, and were withal so long, that we found it necessary to give them names in our own language." They were commonly named after prominent Methodists such as Francis Ashbury and Joshua Sole. Children were also named through sponsorships. Wyandot Christian chiefs assembled in 1822 to select a boy and girl to be sponsored by the Juvenile Finleyan Missionary Mite Society. The children of two chiefs, John Hicks' son and Monecues' daughter, were chosen. They were renamed Francis Ashbury and Mary Fletcher. Additional children were also sponsored the following years including a boy re-named John Summerfield, and a girl re-named Hester Ann Rogers. In addition to sponsorship, they also created a program they called 'outing' of the boys. John Johnston proposed it to cut costs at the mission school. Families across Hillsboro, Ohio volunteered to sponsor boys at their own homes. They taught them English and farming for a one-year term. Boys also were sent to seminaries across Ohio. Older boys may also have been able to travel on the circuits with preachers. The outing program was likely overwhelming for the boys, especially if they only spoke and understood Wyandot. It is unclear how they felt about their placements, if the families taught them farming skills, or used them as farmhands.[xx]

The first schoolhouse was a small log schoolhouse. It was later replaced by a 24x20 one and a half-story schoolhouse in 1838. Visitors to the mission often remarked positively on the success of the students. M'Kendree visited in 1827 and reported that, "Many of the children who were at school three years ago, have finished their education and retired, and their places are filled by another set of younger children, so that there were but few present whom I saw three years ago; but those who were at school then are now considerably advanced, and the young scholars are progressing as well as could be expected under existing circumstances." The circumstances he was referring to was a harsh winter, however, the mission received two additional stoves and fared well. The school accommodated not only Wyandot children but children from the surrounding white communities as well. The Methodists, in comparison, donated more time to religious instruction than the Quaker schools but were generally not as structured as the Presbyterians.[xxi]

Mission Church and Religious Teaching

"So numerous are our congregations, that no house we have will hold them." [xxii] -James B. Finley

Methodism was more appealing to the Wyandots than other denominations for a variety of reasons. Methodism more so than other denominations prompted higher degrees of personal choice and individualism in regards to religion. It was less austere then Presbyterianism and Congregationalism. The Quakers similarly allowed a higher degree of personal religion but they never offered a consistent presence at Upper Sandusky. The Wyandots were highly spiritual prior to their exposure to European religions. Methodism allowed them to adopt certain practices to their own traditions and beliefs without pressuring full conversions. Methodists also did not believe reading was essential to worship and placed emphasis on hymn singing, which was favorable to the Wyandot who were said to have responded more positively to the singing of hymns than sermons. The mission, therefore, translated hymns into the Wyandot language more than the Bible itself. According to historian Michael Leonard Cox, "Methodists gave great credence to dreams and other forms of unconscious communications with God, taking these supernatural forms of direct revelation quite seriously." This also matched well with the existing beliefs and practices of the Wyandots who placed importance on dreams and communication with the spiritual realm. Lastly, Methodism was also more inclusive of women and all races of people than any other denomination. They not only allowed Native Americans and African Americans to be members of the church, they also welcomed them to have leadership roles within the lower church apparatus. Members of the Wyandot could become ordained ministers and missionaries in the Methodist church, which was uncommon for other denominations in this time period. This gave the Wyandots a sense of shared authority and leadership within the mission.[xxiii]

In an account given by Reverend William Capers, he noted that the mission house was crowded every Sabbath day. He noted that the school-aged children attended religious classes and prayer meetings once a week. In his opinion, the school children exhibited an evident interest in learning religion and stated that many could read and even recite Bible passages. Capers also indicated that there was a significant African American community that attended the Methodist mission's church services as well writing, "I have never, no never preached to any people so hungrily anxious after divine things, as were the black people there. There were about sixty of them: and they were never weary of hearing." The church had roughly an even number of Wyandot and white church attendees in 1832, as reported in the Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald. There were 246 Wyandot members and 231 white members. The members of the church were split into ten smaller classes, with thirteen leaders, five exhorters, and five stewards. The classes met weekly to learn religious teachings. The class leaders reported the following accounts of their classes to a Methodist Newspaper.[xxiv]

In addition to religious meetings and church services at the mission house, the missionaries established a circuit around five surrounding counties. They traveled and taught religious classes and preached to congregations, They estimating they reached about 218 additional members in remote areas. The missionaries stated, "Our rides have been long, and appointments crowded, in order not to neglect the mission farm, schools and church at Upper Sandusky; and these rides often through swamps, and frequently along a dim Indian trace; but with such seasons of refreshment as we have witnessed almost at every appointment, we are encouraged to toil on, giving all the glory to God."[xxv]

Removal

"We fear the removal of the surrounding nations, who have all sold out, and the means in operation to induce the Wyandots to sell, will have a serious effect on them for the ensuing year. We need not ask our friends in the east to pray for the Lord to direct our people to such a conclusion as will be for his glory and their future welfare; this we are persuaded you already do."[xxvi] - Missionaries Thomas Thompson and Benjamin Boydston 1831

The missionaries at Upper Sandusky defended the rights of the Wyandots to remain in Ohio. James B. Finley wrote a letter to the government arguing that the Wyandots had made numerous sacrifices on behalf of the United States. Many members of the group had fought on the side of the Americans during the War of 1812 and as a result, many lost their lives and struggled with sickness and poverty as a result. The Wyandot, Finley argues, were also more merciful than other groups claiming that they saved more prisoners and adopted them into their own families, and quoted the Bible phrase, "'Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.'" The Wyandot had also already lost much of the land that was once theirs and only remained on a small reservation, therefore, they had already suffered enough. Finley also points out that the previous treaty that granted them their reservation at Upper Sandusky was permanent. Finley thought it would be a great shame to abandon the mission and the model of the peaceful society they had created together with the Wyandot.[xxvii]

Finley also called upon the basis of race to validate their right to stay in Ohio. Many of the Wyandot were referred to at the time as being 'mixed blood' meaning they had both Native and white relatives. No Native Americans were permitted to own property in Ohio as a result of the Indian Removal Act and subsequent removal treaties. Finely also argued that many prominent white families had become allied with the Wyandots and supported their right to stay. A similar notion was held in the court system. An Indian petition would likely not be heard unless a white man supported him or her in their claim. Such were the racial biases against the Natives throughout the nineteenth century.[xxviii]

John Johnston regarded the Wyandots highly stating, "The Wyandots were always a leading tribe among the Indians of the Northwest." He reluctantly persuaded them to sell their lands, realizing that their removal was inevitable. The Wyandot were the last remaining group in Ohio. All other Native groups had already left Ohio in the early 1830s. The Wyandot were able to remain in part because they outright refused to negotiate with the American government and they were adamant about being able to choose their own land west of the Mississippi if they were to relocate. Eventually, the murder of chief Summudewat and his immediate family persuaded them to reconsider, due to the court's refusal to protect Native lives. The Wyandot sold all their land to the government for the going rate of property in Ohio, which is substantially more than other native groups received for their reservations. They also received additional annuity money to help build their new homes.[xxix]

There were nearly 2,000 Wyandots at Upper Sandusky in 1800. There were less than 600 by the time of their removal treaty in 1842. John Johnston himself as Commissioner of the United States negotiated their removal treaty. The Wyandot chiefs and people were reluctant to leave their cherished homes, farms, and friends. Their farms were quite successful and as prosperous as any in the area. They had over one-hundred log homes, a grist mill, a store, and numerous other improvements. Chief Grey Eyes, an ordained Wyandot minister spoke to Johnston about his reluctance to leave and his commitment to his people and their home. Johnston told Grey Eyes that his people needed him and that his calling was to continue spreading God's word to the Wyandot in Kansas. Eventually, two-thirds of the male population were in favor of removal. They departed to Cincinnati and boarded steamboats. A young child and a 103-year-old Wyandot died on the trip left for Kansas, later relocating to Oklahoma.[xxx]

After the Wyandots were forced to relocate to Kansas, the remainder of the mission buildings and property fell into disrepair. By around 1880 it was reported that the church was looted and vandalized. Graves were also looted for Native memorabilia and the tombstones were not kept up. There is now a replica building located at the same site as the original meeting house, as well as an Ohio history marker. [xxxi] 

This concludes the history of the mission at Upper Sandusky. It is important to remember that this study focuses primarily on the mission and its closure. The aftermath of the Wyandot’s removal is not discussed, however, it is vastly important to reamian cognizent that they are still experiencing the aftermath of removal to this day as are many other Native nations and individuals.

References

[i] John Johnston, "Recollections of Sixty Years," Edited by Charlotte Reeve Coopper, Published by John Henry Patterson. 1915;  Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016.

[ii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 43-44.

[iii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 44.

[iv] The Methodist Magazine John Johnston, "Extract of a Letter from John Johnston, Esq. Agent for Indian Affairs, to Bishop M'Kendree, Dated Upper-Sandusky, Aug. 28, 1823," Gospel Trumpet (1823-1823) 2, no. 12 (1823): 177

[v] "John Stewart and James Finley Preach to the Wyandots: A Memoir by William Walker, and the Reverend James Finley's Accounts of the Upper Sandusky Mission, 1816-1825," (pp. 148-154) in Emily Foster, The Ohio Frontier: An Anthology of Early Writings. University Press of Kentucky, 1996, Accessed March 15, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j8tv; The History Of Wyandot County, Ohio, Containing a History of the County: its Townships, Towns, Churches, Schools, etc., Chicago, Leggett, Conway & Co., 1884; Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016.

[vi] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 74.

[vii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 75.

[viii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016., 78.

[ix] James B. Finley, "Life Among the Indians," circa 1856, https://ohiomemory.org/digital/collection/p267401coll36/id/12072/rec/4; Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 82.

[x] John L. Leie, "Wyandot Mission Upper Sandusky: Extract from Judge Leib's Report to the Department of War." Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 48 (1827): 189.

[xi] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843." Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 94. 

[xii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 123; "Wyandott Mission," Zion's Herald (1823-1841) 1, no. 42 (1823): 166.

[xiii] John L. Leie, "Wyandot Mission Upper Sandusky: Extract from Judge Leib's Report to the Department of War," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 48 (1827): 189.

[xiv] James Gilruth, "Observations on the Mission and State of Indian Society at Upper Sandusky.: The State of the Church. State of the School. Temporal Economy. State of Indian Society," Zion's Herald (1823-1841), Aug 16, 1826, 1; "Extract of a Letter from the Rev. James B. Finley, Methodist Missionary, Dated Sandusky Mission House, Feb. 10, 1824," (1824, Jun 23), Zion's Herald (1823-1841), 1; W. M'Kendree, "Missionary Intelligence: Sandusky Mission," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 46 (1827): 182; "Sandusky Mission" Gospel Trumpet (1823-1823) 2, no. 11 (1823): 174; Thompson, Thomas and Benjamin Boydston, "Missionary Intelligence.: Sandusky Mission. To the Corresponding Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church," Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald (1828-1833), Oct 07, 1831, 22.

[xv] "John Stewart and James Finley Preach to the Wyandots: A Memoir by William Walker, and the Reverend James Finley's Accounts of the Upper Sandusky Mission, 1816-1825," (pp. 148-154) in Emily Foster, The Ohio Frontier: An Anthology of Early Writings. University Press of Kentucky, 1996. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j8tv; John L Leie, "Wyandot Mission Upper Sandusky: Extract from Judge Leib's Report to the Department of War," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 48 (1827): 189; "Wyandott Mission," Zion's Herald (1823-1841) 1, no. 42 (1823): 166.

[xvi] John L. Leie, "Wyandot Mission Upper Sandusky: Extract from Judge Leib's Report to the Department of War," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 48 (1827): 189.

[xvii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 88.

[xviii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 112; Thompson, Thomas and Benjamin Boydston, "Missionary Intelligence.: Sandusky Mission to the Corresponding Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church," Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald (1828-1833), Oct 07, 1831, 22; "Letter from the Rev. James B. Finley, Superintendent Account of the (Methodist) Indian Mission, Upper Sandusky, Dated 12th February, 1823." Christian Repository (1821-1824) 2, no. 64 (1823): 254; James Gilruth, "Observations on the Mission and State of Indian Society at Upper Sandusky: The State of the Church. State of the School. Temporal Economy. State of Indian Society," Zion's Herald (1823-1841), Aug 16, 1826, 1.

[xix] The Methodist Magazine John Johnston, "Extract of a Letter from John Johnston, Esq. Agent for Indian Affairs, to Bishop M'Kendree, Dated Upper-Sandusky, Aug. 28, 1823," Gospel Trumpet (1823-1823) 2, no. 12 (1823): 177; "Letter from the Rev James B. Finley, Superintendent of the (Methodist) Indian Mission, Upper Sandusky, Dated 12th February, 1823," Christian Repository (1821-1824) 2, no. 64 (1823): 254; James Gilruth, "Observations on the Mission and State of Indian Society at Upper Sandusky: The State of the Church. State of the School. Temporal Economy. State of Indian Society," Zion's Herald (1823-1841), Aug 16, 1826, 1.

[xx] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 91.

[xxi] W. M'Kendree, "Missionary Intelligence: Sandusky Mission," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 46 (1827): 182; Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016.

[xxii] "Extract of a letter from the Rev. James B. Finley, Methodist Missionary, dated Sandusky Mission House, Feb. 10, 1824," (1824, Jun 23). Zion's Herald (1823-1841), 1.

[xxiii] Michael Leonard Cox, "The Ohio Wyandots: Religion and Society on the Sandusky River, 1795-1843," Order No. 10109668, University of California, Riverside, 2016, 16.

[xxiv] "Missionary.: Extracts from the Third Annual Report of Tite Phillidelphia Conference Missionary Society. Creek Mission. Sandusky Mission," Zion's Herald (1823-1841), May 12, 1824, 1; John L. Leie, "Wyandot Mission Upper Sandusky: Extract from Judge Leib's Report to the Department of War," Christian Advocate and Journal (1827-1828) 1, no. 48 (1827): 189; James Gilruth, "Missionary: From the Philadelphia Religious Messenger. Mission House, Upper Sandusky, Ohio, March 2, 1827. State of Religion. Sum-Mun-Du-Wot. Squin-Deh-Te. Big-Tree. James Washington. George Armstrong. Har-Re-Hoot. Rone-Yon-Ess," The Messenger for the Holston Conference (1827-1827) 1, no. 26 (1827): 406.

[xxv] Thomas Thompson and Benjamin Boydston, "Missionary Intelligence.: Sandusky Mission to the Corresponding Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church," Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald (1828-1833), Oct 07, 1831, 22.

[xxvi] Thomas Thompson and Benjamin Boydston, "Missionary Intelligence.: Sandusky Mission to the Corresponding Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church," Christian Advocate and Journal and Zion's Herald (1828-1833), Oct 07, 1831, 22.

[xxvii] "John Stewart and James Finley Preach to the Wyandots: A Memoir by William Walker, and the Reverend James Finley's Accounts of the Upper Sandusky Mission, 1816-1825," (pp. 148-154) in Emily Foster, The Ohio Frontier: An Anthology of Early Writings. University Press of Kentucky, 1996. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j8tv

[xxviii] "John Stewart and James Finley Preach to the Wyandots: A Memoir by William Walker, and the Reverend James Finley's Accounts of the Upper Sandusky Mission, 1816-1825," (pp. 148-154) in Emily Foster, The Ohio Frontier: An Anthology of Early Writings. University Press of Kentucky, 1996. Accessed March 15, 2021. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130j8tv

[xxix] "Our Rich History: The Wyandots - Well Assimilated - Were Sadly Victims of Indian Removal Act," NKYTribune RSS, Accessed March 15, 2021. https://www.nkytribune.com/2017/05/our-rich-history-the-wyandots-well-assimilated-were-sadly-victims-of-indian-removal-act/#:~:text=The%20Wyandot%20managed%20to%20stave,site%20west%20of%20the%20Mississippi.

[xxx] John Johnston, "Recollections of Sixty Years," Edited by Charlotte Reeve Coopper. Published by John Henry Patterson, 1915; "Our Rich History: The Wyandots - Well Assimilated - Were Sadly Victims of Indian Removal Act," NKYTribune RSS, Accessed March 15, 2021.

[xxxi] J. H. Pitezel, "Jottings by the Way: Upper Sandusky," Western Christian Advocate (1834-1883) 48, no. 50 (1881): 400.